Statistical Evaluation of Dugwell Construction and Placement Parameters on Groundwater Contamination in the Sandstone Phreatic Aquiferous Formations in Garoua, North Region Cameroon: Seasonal Variations

Akoachere Richard Ayuk II^1, , Eyong Thomson Areakpoh² and Omogbemi Omoloju Yaya³

¹Department of Geology, University of Buea, Cameroon

²Hydrological Research Center, P.O.Box: 4110 Yaounde

³National Water Resources Institute, Kaduna, Nigeria

Cite this paper

Akoachere Richard Ayuk II, Eyong Thomson Areakpoh and Omogbemi Omoloju Yaya. Statistical Evaluation of Dugwell Construction and Placement Parameters on Groundwater Contamination in the Sandstone Phreatic Aquiferous Formations in Garoua, North Region Cameroon: Seasonal Variations. American Journal of Water Resources. 2024; 12(2):24-38. doi: 10.12691/AJWR-12-2-1

Abstract

Dugwell construction parameters (Apron, collar, and cover), and dugwell placement parameters (distance to toilets and distance to dumpsites) could be important factors that may increase the vulnerability of dugwells in phreatic aquiferous formations to biological contamination in Garoua. The objective of this study was to elucidate the role of well construction and well placement parameters on the coliform contamination of groundwater from dugwells in Garoua. According to Cheesbrough classification, coliform bacteria ranged (MPN) from; 0-3000 Wet season, 0-3000 Wet-Dry Season, 2-3000 Dry Season and 1-3000 in the Dry-Wet Season; thus groundwater samples were grossly polluted to unacceptable with coliform present in all seasons. Based on WHO classification most of the groundwater sampled was unfit for domestic purposes in all seasons due to pollution by potentially harmful microorganisms. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) performed on dugwell construction and placement parameters in Garoua produced three clusters based on spatial similarities and dissimilarities. Pearson’s Correlation Analysis (PCA) showed that significant correlations exists between distances from the nearest toilets and dump sites, wells without Aprons, wells without cover, wells without collars and the bacteriological loads in the dugwell groundwater samples which are thus the parameters responsible for the coliform contamination of the aquiferous formations in Garoua.

Keywords

Statistical-evaluation, Dugwell-construction-parameters, Groundwater-contamination, Garoua-Cameroon

Copyright

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References

[1]	Collins, S. Hand-Dug Shallow Wells. SKAT, Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation in Technology and Management. Saint Gallen, Switzerland, 102 pages, https://www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/ documents/default/256.pdf (2000).
[2]	Sutton, S. and J. Butterworth Self-Supply: Filling the Gaps in Public Water Supply Provision. Practical Action Publishing, 362 pages.
[3]	Cagle, S. Lost communities: Thousands of wells in rural California may run dry. The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/feb/28/california-water-wells-dry-sgm a (2020).
[4]	Singh, R.B., Hales, S., De Wet, N., Heamden M., Weinstein, P. The influence of climate variation and change on diarrheal diseases in the Pacific Island. Environ Health Perspect. 2: 155–9. (2001).
[5]	Howard, A.G. Water Quality Surveillance: A Practical Guide. Loughborough University, Loughborough. 2002
[6]	Ikem, A., Osibanjo, O., Sridhar, M.K.C. and Sobande, A. Evaluation of Groundwater Quality Characteristics near Two Waste Sites in Ibadan and Lagos, Nigeria. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 140, 307-333. (2002)
[7]	Ngwe E. and Banza-Nsungu A.B., Les déterminants socio-environnementaux de la morbidité diarrhéique des enfants de moins de 5 ans en milieu urbain au Cameroun : les villes d’Ebolowa et Maroua, Projet réalisé dans le cadre du Programme international de recherche sur les interactions entre la population, le développement et l’environnement (PRIPODE) coordonné par le CICRED, Rapport final de recherche 61. (2007).
[8]	Oyedeji, O., Olutiola, P.O. and Moninuola, M.A. Microbiological Quality of Packaged drinking Water Brands Marketed in Ibadan Metropolis and Ile-Ife City in South Western Nigeria. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 4, 96-102. (2010).
[9]	Nicholson, K., Neumann, K., Dowling, C., Sharma, S.. E. coli and Coliform Bacteria as indicators for Drinking Water Quality and Handling of Drinking Water in the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. EMSD. 2: 411–28. (2017).
[10]	Nola M., Njiné T. and Boutin C., Variabilité de la qualité des eaux souterraines dans quelques stations de Yaoundé (Cameroun), Mémoires de Biospéologie, 25, 183-191. (1998).
[11]	Moussa, D., Nola, M., Gake, B., Ebang Menye, D., Njine, T. Faecal Contamination of Well Water in Garoua (Cameroon): Importance of Household Storage and Sanitary Hygiene International Journal of Research in Chemistry and Environment Vol. 1 Issue 2 Oct. 2011(97-103) ISSN 2248-964, 2011.
[12]	United Nations., Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for Sustainable development.A/RES/70/1. https://un.org/ga/search/ view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E (2015).
[13]	Clasen T., Schmidt W.P., Rabie T., Roberts I. and Cairncross S. Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea: systematic review and meta-analysis, BMJ, 334(7597), 782. (2007).
[14]	World Health Organization, Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition. (2019).
[15]	Ashbolt, N.J., Microbial contamination of drinking water and disease outcomes in developing regions. Toxicology, 198: 229-238. 2004.
[16]	World Health Organization (WHO), Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation: A MidTerm Assessment of Progress. WHO/UNICEF, Geneva, Swiss. (2004).
[17]	EPA Method 1680: Fecal Coliforms in Biosolids by Multiple-Tube Fermentation Procedures (Report). Approved CWA Microbiological Test Methods. (2002). EPA 821-R-02-026.
[18]	Moïse, B., ., John, T.E., , , , , , , , , and Hydrocarbon potential, palynology and palynofacies of four sedimentary basins in the Benue Trough, northern Cameroon , Pages 73-95, 2018.
[19]	Guiraud, R., and Maurin, J. Early Cretaceous rifts of Western and Central Africa: an overview. In: Ziegler PA. Ed. Geodynamics of Rifting, Volume II. Case history studies on rifts: North and South America and Africa. Tectonophysics.; 21 3: 1 53-1 68, 1992.
[20]	Eyike, A., Werner, S.C., Ebbing, J.E., and Dicoum, M. On the use of global potential field models for regional interpretation of the West and Central African Rift System. Tectonophysics, 2010.
[21]	Serge, H., Kengni, P., Tabod, ., , , Depth Variation of the Lithosphere beneath Garoua Rift Region (Cameroon Volcanic Line) Studied from Teleseismic P-Waves , 2019.
[22]	Njitchoua, , Dever, , Ch.Fontes , and Naah, Geochemistry, origin and recharge mechanisms of groundwater from the Garoua Sandstone aquifer, northen Cameroon , Pages 123-140, 1997.
[23]	Poudjom, D.Y.H., Diament, M., and Albouy, Y. 1992. Mechanical behaviour of the lithosphere beneath the Adamawa Uplift (Cameroon, West Africa) based on gravity data. J. Afr. Earth Sci., 15: 81–90.
[24]	Mouzong, M.P., Kamguia, J., Nguiya, S., Shandin,i Y., and Manguelle-Dicoum, E. Geometrical and structural characterization of Garoua sedimentary basin, Benue Trough, North Cameroon, using gravity data. J Biol Earth Sci 201 4 4(1): E25–E33, 2014.
[25]	Kamguia, J., Manguelle-Dicoum, Tabod, ., and Tadjou, Geological models deduced from gravity data in the Garoua basin, Cameroon Journal of Geophysics and Engineering, Volume 2, Issue 2, Pages 147–152, 2005.
[26]	ISO5667-16 Water Quality—Part 16: Guidance on Bio-testing of Water Samples. (2017).
[27]	ISO 9308-1 Water Quality—Part 1: Guidance on Bio-testing of Water Samples. (2014).
[28]	Cheung, M. W. -L., & Chan, W. Testing dependent correlation coefficients via . Organizational Research Methods, 7(2), 206-223. (2004).
[29]	Hastie, Trevor; Tibshirani, Robert; Friedman, Jerome Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 520–8. (2009).
[30]	Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (2003).
[31]	Epule TE, Changhui P, Moto WM, Ndiva MM. Well water quality and public health implications: the case of four neighborhoods of the City of Douala Cameroon. GJHS. 2:75–83. (2011).
[32]	Mendelsohn J, Dawson T. Climate and cholera in kwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: the role of environmental factors and implications for epidemic preparedness. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 211: 156–62. (2008).
[33]	Fernandez MAL, Bauernfeind A, Jiménezn JD, Gli CL, Omeiri NE, Guibert DH. Influence of temperature and rainfall on the evolution of cholera epidemics in Lusaka, Zambia, 2003-2006; analysis of a time series. Trans R Soc. Trop Med Hyg. 2: 137–43. (2009).
[34]	Yongsi HB. Suffering for water, suffering from water: access to drinking water and associated Health Risks in Cameroon. J Health Popul Nutr. 5: 424–35. (2010).
[35]	Akoachere, R.A., Eyong, A.T., Ngassam, M.P., Akoachere, J.-F.K., Okpara, S.O., Yaya, O.O. and Mbaabe, F.A. Groundwater Biological Quality in Abuja FCT: Myths and Realities of Point and Non-Point Pollution of Fractured Rock Aquifers. Open Access Library Journal, 6: e5734. (2019).
[36]	Nola M., Njiné T., Djuikom E. and Sikati F.V., Faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci Community in the underground water in an equatorial area in Cameroon (Central Africa): the role of the soil column near surface and that closely above groundwater table, Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 171, 253-271. (2002).
[37]	Akoachere TK, Oben MP, Mbivnjo SB, Ndip ML, Nkwelang G, Ndip RN. Bacterial indicators of pollution of the Douala lagoon, Cameroon: public health implications. Afr Health Sci. 2: 85–9. (2008).
[38]	Tilley E, Ulrich L, Lüthi C, Reymond P, Zurbrügg C. Compendium des Systèmes et Technologies d’Assainissement. 1st edition. Dübendorf: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology. (2014).